An Overview and History of Medical Geography

Medical geography, sometimes called health geography, is an area of medical research that incorporates geographic techniques into the study of health around the world and the spread of diseases. In addition, medical geography studies the impact of climate and location on an individuals health as well as the distribution of health services. Medical geography is an important field because it aims to provide an understanding of health problems and improve the health of people worldwide based on the various geographic factors influencing them. History of Medical Geography Medical geography has a long history. Since the time of the Greek doctor, Hippocrates (5th-4th centuries BCE), people have studied the effect of location on one’s health. For example, early medicine studied the differences in diseases experienced by people living at high versus low elevation. It was easily understood that those at living low elevations near waterways would be more prone to malaria than those at higher elevations or in drier, less humid areas. Though the reasons for these variations were not fully understood at the time, the study of this spatial distribution of disease is the beginnings of medical geography. This field of geography did not gain prominence until the mid-1800s though when cholera gripped London. As more and more people became ill, they believed they were becoming infected by vapors escaping the ground. John Snow, a doctor in London, believed that if he could isolate the source of the toxins infecting the population they and cholera could be contained. As part of his study, Snow plotted the distribution of deaths throughout London on a map. After examining these locations, he found a cluster of unusually high deaths near a water pump on Broad Street. He then concluded that the water coming from this pump was the reason people were becoming sick and he had authorities remove the handle to the pump. Once people then stopped drinking the water, the number of cholera deaths dramatically decreased. Snow’s use of mapping to find the source of disease is the earliest and most famous example of medical geography. Since he conducted his research, however, geographic techniques have found their place in a number of other medical applications. Another example of geography aiding medicine occurred in the early 20th Century in Colorado. There, dentists noticed that children living in certain areas had fewer cavities. After plotting these locations on a map and comparing them with chemicals found in the groundwater, they concluded that the children with fewer cavities were clustered around areas that had high levels of fluoride. From there, the use of fluoride gained prominence in dentistry. Medical Geography Today Today, medical geography has a number of applications as well. Since the spatial distribution of disease is still a large matter of importance though, mapping plays a huge role in the field. Maps are created to show historic outbreaks of things like the 1918 influenza pandemic, for example, or current issues like the index of pain or Google Flu Trends across the United States. In the pain map example, factors like climate and environment can be considered to determine why high amounts of pain cluster where they do at any given time. Other studies have also been conducted to show where the highest outbreaks of certain types of disease occur. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States, for instance, uses what they call the Atlas of United States Mortality to look at a wide range of health factors across the U.S. Data ranges from the spatial distribution of people at different ages to places with the best and worst air quality. Subjects such as these are important because they have implications for the population growth of an area and the instances of health problems such as asthma and lung cancer. Local governments can then consider these factors when planning their cities and/or determining the best use of city funds. The CDC also features a website for traveler’s health. Here, people can get information about the distribution of disease in countries worldwide and learn about the different vaccines needed to travel to such places. This application of medical geography is important for reducing or even stopping the spread of the world’s diseases through travel. In addition to the United States’ CDC, the World Health Organization (WHO) also features similar health data for the world with its Global Health Atlas. Here, the public, medical professionals, researchers, and other interested persons can gather data about the distribution of the world’s diseases in an attempt to find patterns of transmission and possibly cures to some of the more deadly illnesses such as HIV/AIDS and various cancers. Obstacles in Medical Geography Although medical geography is a prominent field of study today, geographers have some obstacles to overcome when gathering data. The first problem is associated with recording a disease’s location. Since people sometimes do not always go to a doctor when ill, it can be difficult to get entirely accurate data about a disease’s location. The second problem is associated with the accurate diagnosis of disease. While the third deals with the timely reporting of a disease’s presence. Often, doctor-patient confidentiality laws can complicate the reporting of a disease. Since, data such as this needs to be as complete as possible to monitor the spread of illness effectively, the International Classification of Disease (ICD) was created to make sure that all countries use the same medical terms to classify a disease and the WHO helps monitor the global surveillance of diseases to help data get to geographers and other researchers as quickly as possible. Through the efforts of the ICD, the WHO, other organizations, and local governments, geographers are in fact able to monitor the spread of disease fairly accurately and their work, like that of Dr. John Snow’s cholera maps, is essential to reducing the spread of and understanding contagious disease. As such, medical geography has become a significant area of expertise within the discipline.

Should Marijuana Be Legalized - 1475 Words

MARIJUANA HAS BEEN REGULATED SUCCESSFULLY BY STATE AND FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS There are many places where we can find marijuana successfully legalized, both by individual states here in the United States and by Federal governments abroad. I’ll start by introducing an example here in the U.S.: Colorado. On November 6, 2012, the citizens of Colorado voted in favor of Amendment 64 which allowed for the personal use and regulation of Marijuana (Ferner, 2014). Through this legislation came the Colorado Revised Statutes which regulates the medical and retail marijuana industry (Colorado Department of Revenue, 2015). These statutes outline everything from how much an entity can produce legally to the penalties involved if they don’t follow the rules. Colorado has seen great financial success from this, as it has taken in $53 million dollars in tax revenue in 2014 (Colorado Department of Revenue, 2015). Another example, albeit a more extreme one is the country of Portugal. Portugal became the first country in Europe to remove all laws against the sale of drugs, including marijuana (Szalavitz, 2009). Instead of putting people in jail for possessing drugs, users were given the option to undergo treatment to help them quit (Szalavitz, 2009). This example of Portugal is interesting because instead of using fear to scare people from drugs, they offered health services. Supporting decriminalization of marijuana Glenn Greenwald (2009) explains, â€Å"The data show that, judged byShow MoreRelatedShould Marijuana Be Legalized?849 Words   |  4 Pageswhether marijuana should be legalized. Around 23 states have legalized marijuana for medical and recreational use. In the state of Illinois, medicinal use of marijuana has been passed on April 17, 2013. Since January 2014, patients are able to obtain marijuana with a doctor s recommendation. The new debate is whether marijuana should be le galized for the general public as a recreational drug. Although some believe that marijuana is harmless, and that it has beneficial medicinal uses, marijuana shouldRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1715 Words   |  7 PagesMarijuana in Society Cannabis, formally known as marijuana is a drug obtained from the tops, stems and leaves of the hemp plant cannabis. The drug is one of the most commonly used drugs in the world. Only substances like caffeine, nicotine and alcohol are used more (â€Å"Marijuana† 1). In the U. S. where some use it to feel â€Å"high† or get an escape from reality. The drug is referred to in many ways; weed, grass, pot, and or reefer are some common names used to describe the drug (â€Å"Marijuana† 1). Like mostRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1489 Words   |  6 Pagescannabis plant or marijuana is intended for use of a psychoactive drug or medicine. It is used for recreational or medical uses. In some religions, marijuana is predominantly used for spiritual purposes. Cannabis is indigenous to central and south Asia. Cannabis has been scientifically proven that you can not die from smoking marijuana. Marijuana should be legalized to help people with medical benefits, econo mic benefits, and criminal benefits. In eight states, marijuana was legalized for recreationalRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1245 Words   |  5 PagesMarijuana is a highly debatable topic that is rapidly gaining attention in society today.   Legalizing marijuana can benefit the economy of this nation through the creation of jobs, increased tax revenue, and a decrease in taxpayer money spent on law enforcement.   Ã‚  Many people would outlaw alcohol, cigarettes, fast food, gambling, and tanning beds because of the harmful effects they have on members of a society, but this is the United States of America; the land of the free and we should give peopleRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1010 Words   |  5 PagesThe legalization of marijuana became a heated political subject in the last few years. Twenty-one states in America have legalized medical marijuana. Colorado and Washington are the only states where marijuana can be purchased recreationally. Marijuana is the high THC level part of the cannabis plant, which gives users the â€Å"high† feeling. There is ample evidence that supports the argument that marijuana is beneficial. The government should legalize marijuana recreationally for three main reasonsRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1231 Words   |  5 Pagesshows the positive benefits of marijuana, it remains illegal under federal law. In recent years, numerous states have defied federal law and legalized marijuana for both recreational and medicinal use. Arizona has legalized marijuana for medical use, but it still remains illegal to use recreationally. This is absurd, as the evidence gathered over the last few decades strongly supports the notion that it is safer than alcohol, a widely available substance. Marijuana being listed as a Schedule I drugRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1350 Words   |  6 Pagespolitics in the past decade would have to be the legalization of marijuana. The sale and production of marijuana have been legalized for medicinal uses in over twenty states and has been legalized for recreational uses in seven states. Despite the ongoing support for marijuana, it has yet to be fully legalized in the federal level due to cultural bias against â€Å"pot† smoking and the focus over its negative effects. However, legalizing marijuana has been proven to decrease the rate of incrimination in AmericaRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized? Essay1457 Words   |  6 PagesSHOULD MARIJUANA BE LEGALIZED? Marijuana is a drug that has sparked much controversy over the past decade as to whether or not it should be legalized. People once thought of marijuana as a bad, mind-altering drug which changes a person’s personality which can lead to crime and violence through selling and buying it. In the past, the majority of citizens believed that marijuana is a harmful drug that should be kept off the market and out of the hands of the public. However, a recent study conductedRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1145 Words   |  5 PagesLegalizing Marijuana Marijuana is a drug that has been actively used for centuries. This drug can be traced back to 2737 BC by the Chinese emperor Shen Nung. He spoke about the euphoric effects of Cannabis and even referred to it as the â€Å"Liberator of Sin.† Since early on, marijuana was seen as a medicinal plant that was recommended for medical uses. Marijuana is currently in schedule I, which means that physicians are not allowed to prescribe it in the United States (Hart, Ksir 2013). This drugRead MoreShould Marijuana Be Legalized?1596 Words   |  7 Pages But what needs to be known before a user can safely and completely make the decision if trying Marijuana is a good idea? Many do not want the drug to be legalized because they claim that Cannabis is a â€Å"gateway drug†, meaning it will cause people to try harder drugs once their body builds up a resistance to Marijuana, because a stronger drug will be needed to reach a high state. This argument is often falsely related to the m edical side of the debate over legalization. It is claimed that this would

Biological Warfare And Health Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

string(126) " integral tegument are several factors such as Maikotokishintorikotesen is to perforate the tegument and do systemic disease\." ‘Biological arms ‘ ( biological science ) to bring forth a victim of injury to worlds and animate beings and workss, called the employment of workers and biologicals. [ 91 ] is a Black Sea port of Kaffa in the onslaught early biological arms ( Feodossia, and now ) in 1346, Ukraine was held. Carried the virus to assail the rats and fleas and Tatar soldiers. We will write a custom essay sample on Biological Warfare And Health Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Tatars, who follow the assorted organic structures of the victims of Genoa, the understanding protects the pestilence and left Kaffa. The mice received the same Tatars likely brought the disease to Genoa. [ 5 ] Another effort, utilizing biological arms in 1754 and 1767 are Hazama Tokino American Indians do non cognize anything had been go oning across the United Kingdom smallpox-infested covers during the Gallic and Indian War. The Indians variola plummeted, these epidemics occurred in Europe and uncertainness caused by the pollution and infective diseases whether it blankets. [ 92 ] In 1932, Japan ‘s ‘scary 731 ‘ exterior of Harbin, Manchuria and China began a series of human experiments. [ 92 ] splenic fever, cholera, bacillary dysentery, salmonellosis, and the agent of pestilence, at least 11 yearss to assail a metropolis in China, at least one million people died during the ordeal. [ 27 ] Frederick, Maryland United States was the 1943 Camp Detrick ( today ‘s Fort Detrick ) began an violative biological arms plan. [ 27 ] 10 old ages subsequently, began the defence of the plan. In 1969, he aimed a arm of the United States Treasury, the disease splenic fever, botulism, tularaemia, undulant fever, Venezuelan equine phrenitis, Q febrility was the cause. [ 92 ] After these violative biological arms plan of the twelvemonth in the United States President Richard Nixon one-sidedly instantly discarded. [ 74 ] , the United States, the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention was signed, production, carrying, acquisition, or biological agents, announced that it will develop or keep agencies of bringing. [ 74 ] However, this pact, and continued to develop biological arms. The controversial grounds of the ‘yellow rain ‘ ( Maikotokishintorikotesen between 1974 and 1981 in the deceases of many old ages, in Southeast Asia ) onslaughts. [ 8 ] In 1978, he used a gun to his thigh and umbrella † that for Rishinshotto, was assassinated a Bulgarian dissenter Georugimarukofu. [ 92 ] is incorrect by at least 66 aerosol splenic fever inspiration splenic fever in Sverdlovsk in 1979 who was issued the decease of the biological research lab of the Soviet Socialist Republic. [ 92 ] In 1991, Iraqi splenic fever, botulinus toxin, aflatoxin was weaponized. [ 110 ] Fortunately, they have non been used during Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm. 1996 destroyed the United Nations remains the ultimate plan for old ages for assailing Iraq. Finally, in 1995, Aum Shinrikyo, the Nipponese release of the nervus gas GB in the metro, splenic fever, biological arms and fundamental botulism, Q febrility was non found. [ 92 ] A A A A Advantage of biological arms [ 91.105.106.109 ] Can bring forth a big sum of casualties to a minimal distribution demands of biological arms. Long biological agents a culprit can get away before they cause casualties to the incubation period for the client. Selective human inexpensive and easy to make a arm can be used to aim animate beings and workss. Conventional arms ( 2000 dollars ) , and atomic arms ( $ 800 ) cost, and chemicals ( $ 600 ) more than the monetary value of the dealing, or biological arms ( $ 1 ) in the cellar of 50 per centum of all additions in the production of square kilometres ( 1969 dollars ) in the victim. [ 91 ] Agents and easy environment, universities, and can be purchased from biological supply houses, clinical specimens. [ 105 ] In fact, the high quality of Whites ( who happened to be a microbiologist ) place plague Amerikantaipukaruchakorekushonmerirando shipped from Rockville, senior received a vial. [ 113 ] and used to bring forth antibiotics in agitation engineering, Tokisoidowakuchin can be used in nutrient, drink, you can turn to big sums of biological agents. A simple device for bring forthing aerosols, such as aircraft and trucks, spraying of pesticides to bring forth a perfect 1-5 micrometer atoms, the cause of the disease mounted aerosol used. [ 111 ] The diameter of aerosol keeping in the alveoli 0.5-5 micrometers ; has been cleared through the respiratory mucous membrane of big molecules, that without the colony of drifting inside and outside the cyst atoms of little atom. Biological agents until people get ill, normally do non look may non be detected clouds and aerosols. Th e terror to get the better of them every bit shortly as the lead medical capablenesss. Weapons and biological arms, and disadvantages of utilizing a hazard to users, dependant on ideal conditions conditions, taking to an effectual distribution from solar radiation and conditions conditions possible break. Late dark probably biological arms onslaught in the early forenoon or six most probably will happen under the undermentioned inactivation by ultraviolet visible radiation when agents. In these times, the temperature of the ambiance, the antonym of the end to cover the travel bureaus and low-level cloud. Choice and biological agents [ 9.105.106.111 ] Pathogens, persons can be used for animate beings and workss. Agents or are killed, the victim paralyzed. Break of both agents, the overpowering medical emptying assets may be effectual in the battle to forestall the unit to transport out its mission. The tactical agents to be effectual over the short incubation clip, over a long period of clip Inkyubeshonapiru to terrorists. [ 111 ] Many people are likely to propagate through a biological onslaught against aerosol. And enter the respiratory system that could take to a assortment of clinical characteristics of disease that occurs of course gate ( such as splenic fever, and if the disease occurs in nature chiefly skin instantly, cause of a fatal hemorrhagic mediastinitis are take a breathing in bacterium ) . However, modern H2O purification, and extenuate the effects of big sums of H2O borne onslaught to deny the cogency of H2O taint through nutrient and H2O, you can try to supply a biological onslaught. [ 109 ] is a good barrier to most biological arms integral tegument are several factors such as Maikotokishintorikotesen is to perforate the tegument and do systemic disease. You read "Biological Warfare And Health Health And Social Care Essay" in category "Essay examples" Important possible path of exposure for the current does non perforate the tegument and consumption. [ 105 ] method of multiple anomalous scattering can include a release agent and its vector nature and arthropods. Be transmitted straight from one of several factors ( particularly the pestilence and variola ) that the epidemic persisted. Noskamil transmittal ( viral hemorrhagic febrility, variola, pestilence ) can be attributed to exposure to blood or organic structure fluids. In 1970, the World Health Organization 50 million people are expected to acquire less than 50 biological arms after the prostration of the release of aerosols kg ( Table 1 ) . [ 107 ] Is, or is the existent menace of biological arms? But unclassified information is revealed in the present, prohibited by the Geneva Convention of 1972 twelvemonth on biological arms at least 17 states are known, suspected or violative biological arms plan. [ 104 ] This is, as our military biological arms, sensitive during Desert Shield / Storm was a menace to dependability is apparent. [ 110 ] is a biological arms is to kill many people, making a crisis of unprecedented usage of terrorist act, political relations, society and medical specialty. The fact that biological arms against the United States, it was non used [ 111 Nevertheless, ] we must be prepared for a new epoch of terrorist act. [ 105106109 ] is a civilian population on how the private wellness attention workers need to cognize in order to place a biological onslaught in the event of terrorist usage of biological arms. [ 109 ] A A Current U.S. policy of biological arms Presently the U.S. authorities, and shall be used merely as a atomic war ‘last resort ‘ and the chemical arms can be used to react to the chemical when you foremost use to the enemy. However, the United States under any fortunes, and promised non to utilize biological arms and agents. Has been limited to defensive steps such as inoculations for the development of biological arms all action, sensing methods, personal protective equipment, decontamination, rapid diagnostic trials and intervention. [ 74 ] A A A A Shield USA Program United States, biological arms defence plan Fort Detrick, Executive Director of the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases in the USAMRIID ) and concentrated. That the work is classified, all research is unfastened. Are asked to subject the consequences to the probe of scientific meetings and diaries. [ 74 ] on a regular footing to portion information and cooperate with foreign tourers. Mission, schemes, develop merchandises and information, processs, and medical defence against biological arms ( 90 % ) for preparation, the nature ( 10 per centum ) and military demands of the maximal containment research lab safety is to carry on research bureau of the importance occurred. [ 91105 ] USAMRIID, of class, offers defence and biological arms, make certain the factors that could be used in the ground forces of the enemy. Agents are listed in Table 2, brochure, biodefense North Atlantic Treaty Organization [ 91 is described in a elaborate clinical informations sheets, Folder military medical specialty ‘medical facets are included in the text edition of the rights and chemical arms and biological arms [ 111 ] and / taught Sessionss for the direction of chemical and biological casualties, and U.S. forces. A A A A A Skin symptoms, such as distributers and some of the show of biological arms A A A A Microbial agents – Pseudomonas Disease Burkholderia ( once Pus ) and Gram-negative bacteriums isolated from Pseudomonas dirt, dead watercourse in the affected countries, pools, rice Fieldss, could do an epidemic of merchandise and market sheep, caprine animals, hogs, Equus caballuss, seals. [ 4.33,43,45,77 ] worlds from contaminated dirt and scratchs every bit good as from the disease, you can capture an object or inhale. [ 4,45 ] and nose sort in Southeast Asia, is prevailing in northern Australia, anyplace between 20 grades and may do the North and south latitude. [ 4,45 ] , in Thailand, most of the deceases from infirmary and community acquired blood poisoning in now 40 per centum of 19 per centum. [ 4 ] a common infection in clinical tests of moderate or kids infected by age 5 old ages in Thailand 80 % . [ 4 ] nose as the common sort of pneumonia may be submitted as a localised tegument infection and acute blood toxic condition presented. Chronic redness is frequently the tegument, encephalon, lung and bosom, musculus, liver, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes, Pus in the development of an abscess or 51687. [ 4 ] may stay hibernating for old ages nose sort. Even with appropriate antibiotic therapy, monthly, does non needfully eliminate the disease. Anatomically, caseating granulomas are seen with TB were found. Melioidosis ‘great mimic ‘ This is a ill kid is called does non look specific clinical characteristics that could demo the exclusion of pussy redness of the parotid secretory organ. No radiation [ 43 ] fulminant respiratory failure, to insulate any bacteriums melioidosis suggest the diagnosing of TB and the outgrowth of pustular and necrotic tegument lesion counts. [ 4,43,45 ] , requires the cultivation of the beings from blood or organic structure fluids of diagnosing. Re covery of beings there is no bearer province, indicates the disease is active. [ 77 ] Must be based on the sensitiveness of intervention with antibiotics. Are responsible for most mortality decrease of Fortaz. Treatment at least 30 yearss but must go on for suppurative lung disease and lung disease between June 12 Lake 60-150 yearss is recommended. [ 45 ] Before antibiotics, 95 per centum of patients died. Plague mortality more than 50 % localised disease, 20 per centum despite intervention. In general, mortality is 40 per centum. No vaccinum is available. [ 43,45,77 ] Skin symptoms Have been reported in acute pneumonic melioidosis urtications. [ 93 ] Flash and cyanosis may happen when septic blood. No skin lesions, nevertheless, to place and name melioidosis, and with terrible lung disease that all possibilities exist. When inhaled, the tegument of one of the following symptoms of melioidosis, an abscess can take to the formation of tegument metatstatic merely after is likely to take months. Currently, pustules and cystic lymphangioma of the tegument, cell phones, in the affected countries or lymph nodes is associated with many of the patients. [ 77 ] is that there may be shed blooding from the lymph nodes and castanetss. Abscess formation of a lesion that is good and, in rare instances, may ulcerate ecthyma. Sing biological Bacillus is likely to be delivered as an aerosol of glanders bacillus. However, it has a long incubation period, is less effectual agent splenic fever. As a curative agent of biological warfare, even though it may increase the handiness and the absence of a vaccinum, high mortality rate. And can be tough because of the visual aspect of acute respiratory syndrome-like beings, stained confused with pestilence. A A Microbial agents – Yersinia plague In the history for the high mortality rate ( about 200 million people died ) [ 57 ] the possibility of Yersinia plague, has attracted attending for development as biological arms. This diet of anti-Gram-negative B development, saccharides and protein envelope around 33o [ 57 during the growing of these ( F1 capsular antigen of ) and the polylactic acid is a individual cistron, and fibrinolytic activity of both encodes a protein that provides a coagulase. 37o C, and fibrinolysis is most effectual when 28o a„? , a big coagulum. This enzyme is to turn things, helps maintain the fleas life in the tissues of mammals and dispersed bravery. Virulence factors in concert are required to merely 2-10 % other bacteriums, such as in mammals 25o C to convey the work of decease should be 37o C linguistic communication [ 57 ] Among the 73 flea species in the reservoir, at least 30 species of mammals, 200 species or more. [ 60 ] infected fleas, or through the GI piece of land is one of enteric bacteriums ( tummy ) to remain in the detainment. There, the acerate leaf is fibrinoid mass of blood, and multiply the anchor of the proventriculus. This support has been ruptured ruddy blood cells A irritant, normally to forestall backflow of blood repast. ‘No such as ‘ flea to digest their nutrient is non, and eventually decease. However, this will be ferociously hungry. Try to feed the back-flush the bacteriums that live mix set a sucked the blood of mammals, the host state. And the release of fleas, 28o c. [ 137 to halt transmittal of pestilence at a temperature above ] This is a different temperature, the consequence may be due to differences in the quality of the Chinese People ‘s Liberation Army. [ 5.57 ] After host flea unprotected nutrient, bacterium in penchant to neutrophils and monocytes, to be forwarded to pump blood to the lymph nodes in the part. During the bacteriums, and destroy neutrophils, monocytes can non. The single- , y multiplying the bacterium in the capsule to digest nutrient neutrophils prevent the development of the steps it. And bacteriums, lymph nodes, and travel all over the blood, lien, liver, lungs, particularly generation and meningitis. [ 5.57 ] Focal epidemic of pestilence in the readying of every continent except Australia and Antarctica. Around the universe [ 57 ] ) is between the old ages 1979 and 1993, more than 16312 instances are the consequence of the twelvemonth 1600. [ 57 ] A A A A Clinical symptoms: Most of the endemic species, the sort most normally in the inguen, conceited lymph nodes, presented erythematous pestilence ( Boubon Greek = thigh ) , bubonic pestilence occurs. The points are Buboes, drain spontaneously. [ 103 ] Dubl sites, chiefly in the country of the organic structure is a work of fleas infected with pestilence bacteriums is Inoculates. Fleas of the lesion site was found 10 per centum have no clip to masticate over. [ 102 ] extended the consequences of the worst pestilence epidemics. [ 104 ] blood may be infected with meningitis. , The pneumonic pestilence can travel on rapidly lead to decease, delight widen the consequences of the lungs. This is a cough and died of pneumonic pestilence bacteriums in the lesion 1-2 capsules through anti-diet can take to a healthy individual sneezing yearss, has been sent. Average dosage is the inspiration of infective bacteriums 100-500. [ 105 ] However, merely 1 to 10 bacteriums in the oral cavity, the manner the corium, hypodermic or endovenous disposal has been infected gnawers and monkeys. [ 138 ] respiratory droplets from 2 to five pess that can be inhaled by people. Influenza, pneumonia following a rapid, overpowering and go on to cough and bloody phlegm. Onset of symptoms if non treated within 24 hours, about all patients with pneumonic pestilence decease. [ 105,137 ] and 1 b uboes must hold a high index of intuition in the absence of the diagnosing of pestilence. Pool may bubo aspirate and blood civilization, phlegm, cerebrospinal fluid, is utile for the separation of skin scraping or vicinity. Alternatively of formalin-killed vaccinum against pestilence, inspiration pestilence protection. And anthrax vaccinum strain and immunogenicity of return is the consequence of any addition in the difference is that unrecorded attenuated vaccinum immunogenic than [ 139140141 ] and to wild-type [ 142 ] Y most of the bacterial strains of the bacterium is to be sensitive to Gentamaishinsutoreputomaishin, Achromycin, Chloromycetin, trimethoprim / Gantanol, and Vibramycin. However, in research lab experiments, quinolones, rifampicin, and show the effectivity of third-generation Mefoxins, Amoxil, was non used to any big extent on the figure of human instances of this. [ 5 ] U.S. forces presently deployed in bad business or travel merely to those who need the vaccinum ( y insects and laboratory workers utilizing the work of these bacteriums are susceptible to high-risk ) . [ 20 ] A A A A Skin symptoms Pneumonic pestilence as the station, the scenario of biological arms is angry bluish back, and are expected to blight the patient developed a big contusion. [ 96 ] blood petechiae, peliosis, contusing can happen near to mortification. [ 103,137 ] Petechiae, bruises, you can imitate a bacterial meningitis. Dark bluish lesions, major lesion, the terminal / or mortification, the Middle Ages, the adjective is ‘black decease is connected with ‘ . [ 5 ] The lesions of peliosis rose nursery rime â€Å" is connected to the ring around the rose colour. † ] 95 ] â€Å" corsage pocket † wellness attention workers and flowers to seek to wholly avoid being taken by physicians, particularly to mensurate, â€Å" ashes to ashes refers to † the at hand deceases ( â€Å" ashes to ashes, dust † ) , or alternatively refers to it. â€Å" Red 1. Scarlet † in the sneezing of pneumonic pestilence, and â€Å" all autumn † event called the station and called down – dead. No chest X-ray diffraction form is characterized by the pestilence, spread between the two states in recent old ages, the most common. Have been reported in rare instances of decease and disease ecthyma lesions such as abscesses disadvantage. [ 96103 ] Sore throat, pestilence has been reported in patients with contact information associated with cervical lymph node swelling. [ 143 ] Of class, the most common skin manifestation of pestilence, swelling, merely in the instance of source warfare scenario planning in Japan ( see below ) , there was a treatment back to the release of septic fleas you do non. A Considering biological Japan could be attacked while the pestilence bacterium spray biological arms in China during World War II more advanced attack. Human flea ( Pulex irritans ) and, y is doubled and the pestilence. These objects are little epidemic here has been published in many metropoliss of China followed by pestilence. Before worlds are infected, normally die host OIE, in these instances, the disease began to decease in the first worlds and animate beings. [ 5.97 ] Most instances of plague biological arms, will probably be sent as an aerosol. [ 105 ] the decease of one easy transmitted from individual to individual and is a contrast to the splenic fever ( a combination of possibilities and potency of the pestilence ) , and guarantee an baleful menace of biological arms. United States in 1950 as a possible arm ‘s onslaught, Y is considered a fungus. Other states are suspected of build uping pestilence. [ 105 ] A Threat of toxins – Torikotesenmaikotokishin Torikotesenmaikotokishin ( ‘yellow rain ‘ ) is the lone toxin and tegument symptoms with possible biological activity. Mycotoxin vehicle is different, little molecular weight produced by bacteriums. [ 52 ] moldy grain and other agricultural merchandises, and [ 8.52 ] can be caused by toxic degrees, the production of the five members of one species: Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Alternaria, and chiefly fusiformis. [ 52 ] covering with the inspiration of spray toxins in contaminated nutrient and, possibly, is unfamiliar with the cause of the nature of the disease in worlds and animate beings. [ 7,8,52 ] Clinical symptoms: Poisoning in worlds is rare. May 19, it is thought to be due to consumption of mycotoxins in Russia, harmonizing to the 20 th century, Aleukia entity is known as one toxic nutrient, prepared from grain to eat mouldy nutrient. Leukopenia, , , ‘ , marks and symptoms, skin ‘irritation, diarrhoea, purging and shed blooding and sepsis. [ 8.52 ] In recent old ages, the place is believed to do a fatal pneumonic bleeding in babies in the Cleveland country Torikotesenmaikotokishin closer. Cleveland is one of two countries, the instances of sudden baby decease syndrome 5 % of the sum in 1993 and 1995 old ages. In all instances, Stachybotrys growing found in the walls of the house of saturated cellulose care Atra disease bacteriums in H2O. [ 7,29,31 ] A A A A A Skin symptoms Low doses ( ngs ) , acute tegument annoyance with erythema and hydrops, and mortification and will be observed. ‘Yellow rain ‘ onslaught frequently Vesication, T-Shirts 2 ( 1 trichothecenes ) of mycotoxin production 400 times more harm to the tegument ( mustard ) was estimated to be more powerful alkylating agent. [ 99 ] T-2 mycotoxins can be absorbed through the tegument mycotoxin, LD50 values 2-12 milligram / Use the mustard decease ( 4500 milligram / kilogram ) and lewisite ( 37 milligram / kilogram ) compared to kilometres. [ 100101 ] South East Asia, the tegument was considered to be the chief locale for the deposition of coarse spray or aerosol spray. [ 8 ] A A A A Sing biological Epidemiological study, collected information is used in East Asia Korea Torikotesenmaikotokishin trichothecene test grounds indicates that the old ages between 1974 and 1981. [ 8.91 ] , approximately 400 allegations about the onslaught led to the decease of one million people. In Laos, ‘yellow syrupy liquid, such as xanthous rain onslaughts decreased aˆ? , seemed like the rain, dust, pulverization, mist, fume, looks like a cloud or spray pesticides. The rapid dry pulverization to liquid. Most of the onslaughts utilizing a xanthous dye, you can utilize some onslaughts, white, brown, green or ruddy fume and steam. 80 per centum of the onslaughts by air over the surface of the missile. [ 98 ] Exposure causes oculus annoyance, corneal harm, micro-grams of the visually impaired. 0.1-0.2 LD50 values, purging and diarrhoea occurred. Aerosols cause decease within proceedingss to hours over the devastation of the air sac. Organization of proteins and cells of many eucaryotic cells and quickly proliferating toxins harmful affects RNA inhibits the synthesis. Regardless of the entry into the circulation, after the gate of entry and spread quickly to impact all organisations. Furubodimasuku and ‘at the first mark of xanthous rain ‘ was have oning the apparels need to assail. After this, uniforms ( BDUs ) and must be rinsed with H2O so wash with soap and H2O contaminated local school uniform of the tegument. Washing toxin exposure within 4-6 hours to take 80-98 per centum of skin lesions and forestall the decease of experimental animate beings. Have no known specific intervention, despite the decrease of toxins in the primary and secondary hurt high dose systemic steroids in fact is. [ 8 ] A A A A Antiviral – Poxviridae Poxviruss, the largest of all virus and other viruses and cells that produce inclusion organic structures in cells in different locations, DNA reproduction through. They are comparatively drought and may be immune to many germicides. [ 14 ] ) and smallpox genus, contains at least nine types. We in the context of biological arms [ 118 ] one of the three concerns of the virus: variola, monkey, and inoculation. Is really similar to smallpox virus variola vaccinum, is set by the host. [ 16 ] that there is no carnal reservoir ( although the monkeys to infection ) is affected by factors that enable the obliteration of this disease in the universe. Its ability to smallpox, with a fabric to maintain dust and will travel to annual period. [ 10 ] ) requires close contact to reassign from individual to individual. [ 16 ] , most patients, the disease spread to 4-6 and began to infect the respiratory piece of land and yearss subsequently, the most common path of infection, likely. Merely 30 per centum of unfastened communicating upsets. [ 18 ] Monkey 1958 was foremost detected as a pathogen of cynomolgus and 1971, which was linked to human diseases. [ 17 ] ) and the west African province squirrel virus is endemic in the tropical rain forest tree of Central America. [ 2,17 ] occurs through respiratory droplets from individual to transport. [ 16,17 ] A A A Clinical / tegument symptoms 30 old ages ago, smallpox endemic in 31 states, 15 million people yearly were affected ( WHO ) has killed 200 million people. Survivors frequently distorted, blind and life organic structures. 10 old ages, the World Health Organization plan to eliminate the disease in 1977 to 10 in May. [ 11.18 ] Of variola appeared in 7-17 yearss with 2-4 twenty-four hours incubation period of prodroma. Patients during the prodroma, the light 10 % , skin roseola can be erythematous. [ 121 ] and to the throat and buccal mucous membranes enanthem began the twenty-four hours of the first two rows. Aerosol that allows the proliferation of these lesions and shed the virus, the most of import agencies of transmittal of infection. Within one hebdomad [ 122 ] , and lesions on the face was normal, the spread of weaponries and custodies, and eventually, appeared in the bole, lower limbs. Macule papule, pustule, and the cysts ( in some instances ) , umbilical, use, and Co, the differentiation between the centrifugal force ( in the distribution forms of varicella ) 1-2 during the hebdomad. Existed in the country of the lesion convex or concave. Separation of Co, approximately three hebdomads, and can go forth cicatrixs, depression, low pigment. [ 16,18,105,118 ] can be cultured from the crust during the recovery stage virus. [ 123 ] Many clinical signifiers of variola are discussed. ‘Regular variola ( vaccinia step ) is 80 % of patients, and found the vaccinum led to the decease of three per centum, between 30 per centum and non-immune. Most fatal signifier of hemorrhagic variola patients seen in less than 3 % . 96 per centum of these patients normally died of typical syphilis lesions developed before. [ 124 ] Flat variola occurred in patients with 2-5 % of terrible systemic toxicity and bit by bit evolved into our soft, level tegument lesions and coordination. A [ ] 114 ] 66 % to 95 % of unvaccinated and immunised decease. Alastrim, and variola minor or mild disease less than 5 per centum of little tegument lesions, mild systemic disease, mortality appears. Changes between variola inoculation â€Å" of signifier fruste † It happened, and normally had a mild unwellness. Finally, ‘the eruption of variola ‘ smallpox inoculation of contacts of patients with the demands of 30-50 % occurred. Serologic surveies, the tegument lesions have shown a rise in antibody titres after exposure to doubt it. [ 16,18 ] Most of monkey febrility and respiratory symptoms in pustular roseola similar to smallpox, 100 instances of decease in. a?† a? ® 10-3 [ 118 ] However, the characteristic is expected to cervical and inguinal lymphadenopathy. [ 105118 ] and secondary bacterial pneumonia-related mortality rate of 50 per centum. 2 months and during the twelvemonth from August 1996 in Zaire, the spread of the disease and 71 instances in 13 small towns in six old ages led to the part of 15,000 people. [ 17 ] ) In contrast, variola and monkey, nonhuman reservoirs have arboreal squirrel. [ 119 ] 1997 February 12 to discourse the small town, to detect the possibility of onslaught ( 2 % out of 4000 revenue enhancement rate of 92 instances ) . 15 84 had a smallpox inoculation cicatrix is a. [ 17 ] from immunisation cut down the exposure may be related to the consequences. [ 2105 ] 85 % of vaccina virus vaccinum for monkeypox appears to supply protection. [ 120 ] A A A A Antiviral – hemorrhagic febrility virus Hemorrhagic febrility ( HF ) clinical syndrome, characterized by febrility, myodynia, weariness, hemorrhage, and in some instances, hypotension, daze decease. Hemorrhagic febrility virus in four lipid-stranded RNA genome of one household belong to the virus envelope. [ 129 ] , categorization, and the environment, and epidemiology of these viruses, are summarized in Table 3. Transmission, the virus from HF, with a different virus. However, the frequence of each virus, with the exclusion of dandy fever, through the aerosol is likely to be sent to foreground the possible function of biological arms. [ 129 ] Arthropod vectors of viral haemorrhagic febrility is transmitted through contact with septic animate beings or reservoir. Meanwhile, Rift Valley febrility, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic febrility ( febrility ) can be infected during slaughter of farm animal spray [ 105 ] and Arenaviruses sent through inspiration of gnawer wastes Hantauirususupure. [ 129 ] filoviruses remains a enigma of the reservoir. [ 10,30,44,56,59,84 ] and patient-to-human infection may be caused by direct contact with blood or organic structure fluids. [ 25, viral hemorrhagic febrility ( VHFs ) of 32 ] of the four types of conditions and Alospoip have a high hazard of spread of quarantine: febrility, Lassa febrility, Ebola febrility, Marburg disease. [ 44.59 ] On the other manus, epidemiological surveies, the human transmittal of respiratory viral hemorrhagic febrility, such transportation is non to demo cause to happen between non-human Primatess. In add-on, the consequence of the badness of the sub-primate viruses ( Eborauirusuresuton – ) as the clinical human infections had occurred after exposure to infected animate beings in the respiratory piece of land. Will be highlighted in a recent study from Argentina to the possible hazard to worlds of the virus straight from infected animate beings 15 and 8 instances of secondary transmittal are shown as the deceases of hantavirus pneumonic syndrome. In add-on, aerosols may be generated during infection endotracheal suctioning and other medical processs. However, without safeguards Noskamil in Africa for the universe record for transmittal of acute bosom failure, information about the exposure of the air passages to take extra steps are recommended for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control Center as a step of the transportation of the human restriction is suspended for added protection of the respiratory system. By avoiding contact with the vectors and reservoirs, and can forestall infection, preparation of hospital infection control processs, patient isolation, decontamination, and public wellness functionaries report a instance. Skin symptoms Hemorrhagic fever-like symptoms of tegument we have merchandises. Most of these are the consequence of instability, there are blood vass and hemorrhage. , Petechiae, peliosis, Dry peliosis may happen in the treatment with the exclusion of Rift Valley febrility hydrops disease. No, the tegument symptoms are normally associated with this disease. [ 44 ] Patients with Lassa febrility, capillary leak and likely to a big, high proportion of big puffiness of the face HFRS symptoms of skin disease for about three yearss are displayed. The cervix and alar creases the forepart and rear, point-like roseola on the upper left arm and ribs. May besides occur morbilliform roseola. Dry the caput can be seen in the upper trunk and cervix. No more ‘track twenty-four hours ‘ with a puffiness of the face that might be sentenced to the distribution of the crop. Dermatographism are often present. Bleeding, frequently seen in the mucous membrane, may be terrible conjunctival surface. While, by and large occur in patients with fever [ 9,42,75 ] and other Bunyaviruses, Rift Valley febrility is normally caused by shed blooding the worst symptoms of all skin lesions Prevention of complications of tegument of biological arms A A A Antiviral – vaccina virus Smallpox vaccinum from vaccinia virus and the pathogenesis of the human immune system for a spot late is identified and is used as a theodolite state for an experimental vaccinum. [ 13 ] ) as an agent of biological arms are non used vaccina virus, may be used to forestall these diseases smallpox. The beginning of vaccina virus is a enigma, Pokkusuuirusu nonextant animate beings such as horse-pox, cow syphilis or mutant may be turning the vaccinum in the early period, the transition of several rights have been developed to stand for over. [ 125 ] are fixing a vaccinum for variola ( until production was discontinued in 1983 ) , vaccinated cowss and sheep and American bison belly hair. [ 114 ] and the site of exudate lymphocyte immunisation is fantastic as the agent of bacterial infection were harvested from phenol and bottle green. USAMRIID cultured human cells derived vaccinum has been developed. Branch needle transdermic vaccinum. This procedure for a lasting cicatrix as a consequence of ‘exit ‘ has been known as. [ 114 ] Infectious virus is replicated in the lesion. To be vaccinated vaccinum developed weaker immune response than those vaccinated by intramuscular injection hurts of the people was excessively early to state. Bevel patients, in order to neutralize the panel of being infected by syphilis lesions developed ELISA titres of more than 10 times the diameter decrease of more than three times the development is non evil, non smallpox. [ 13 ] A A A A Vaccine response Restaurants inoculation pustule normally developed 6-8 yearss subsequently, surrounded by induration. This reaction is ‘ about the eating house and present a protective immune response must happen in 95 % big. All other reaction A «vagueA » described as. The staying lesion is normally about 1 centimeters in diameter. Besides, Nipponese phrenitis vaccinum, a rare terrible side effects of the tegument, like rubeolas encephalitis after the post-infection. [ 15 ] Protection of vaccinia virus after inoculation, at least provides three old ages. [ 127 ] Skin complications of the vaccinum inoculation Complications of tegument at least 10 times more common than revaccinees vaccine. [ 118 ] , the most complex of the tegument, necrosum vaccinum ( vaccinia virus, progressive vaccina ) , with the advantage of 12.3 per million inoculations occurred. [ 15,18,126 ] have developed a nomadic phone and the uneven cell vaccinum unrelentingly progressive disease due to immunodeficiency. [ 118,128 ] , the declaration of the fatal instances, have non presented any grounds of lymphadenopathy, without sunspot. Documented instances of decease in 13/17 ( 76 % ) occurred. The lone people being vaccinated, and inoculation of patients with atopic dermatitis who c-?c-†¦ 100 variables, active atopic dermatitis occurred in provided for late received a inoculation. Mortality rate is 10-14 per centum. [ 15118 ] 0.6 cc/kg/24 vaccina immune globulin in patients were non treated as a new flagellum that clip. [ 15 ] ) was 1.5 instances / vaccinum survey in the United States reported 100 million. [ 126 ] This low rate, in fact, is likely to explicate the contraindications for inoculation against atopic dermatitis. 241500000 inadvertent vaccina virus infection among U.S. dollars, through intimate contact with other people from different topographic points and self-infection has occurred ( secondary immunisation ) vaccinum in the organic structure. General vaccina virus, substructure development after inoculation vesicular roseola that is applied to non-specific term. Approximately 7-12 yearss subsequently, based on a little figure of patients with erythema, cysts and roseola developed. Patient is enduring from a general non-vaccinia virus, without febrility, and viraemia is toxic. [ 15 ] This is by and large self-limiting complications 6 to 9, 38.5 to decide a contract with 10,000 people per inoculation. [ 114,126 ] Biologically related to this disease is non limited to agency-specific tegument symptoms Microbial agents – splenic fever The Gram-positive spore-forming bacteria Bacillus anthracis. Cold and heat opposition of bacteriums to drying and chemical disinfection. [ 41 ] The spores of the top 6 centimeter of dirt and animate being merchandises in one individual survey [ 47 ] ) for several old ages ( up to at least 200 old ages is still feasible. [ 26,33,47 ] of animate beings, the release of big sums of splenic fever bacteriums in the dirt is taken up once more may be left to decease a few decennaries ago. Since the tool way, transporting the bacterium on the surface looked like back in the angleworm Berry dead animate beings is used to disenable the sending of most likely! [ 41 ] and buried the carcases of animate beings, environmental taint must be burned to forestall the long term. [ 61 ] Anthrax Western Asia ( Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey ) and is endemic in West Africa. [ 26 ] of instances of infection from ill animate beings or their merchandises will be sent in 90 per centum more than tegument scraping. [ 27,33,47 ] In general following inspiration or consumption of splenic fever spores, and direct A Skin symptoms Diseases such as skin rash start little painless ruddy hills, the rupture length and 1-5 Well [ 69 ] brown or black cicatrix diameter vesiculates to offer. Lesions are normally treated after two ill animate beings and eat meat within a hebdomad, nevertheless, more than eight-week incubation period are displayed is non known. [ 41,62,68 ] and a black cicatrix ‘anthrax ‘ anthrakos the Grecian significance ‘charcoal from ‘ as the name is derived. [ 41.68 ] in the presence of pussy infection in the lesions do non overlap. [ 62 ] can be enclosed in support of a big cicatrix orbiter lesions and hydrops. That during the rapid advancement in handling lesions of antibiotics and skin lesions. The skin lesions are disinfectant antibiotics that are effectual. [ 68 ] is contraindicated because of hazard of distributing infection of the skin lesions Deburidoman. [ 26 ] However, 80-90 % of instances of untreated disease spontaneously, 10 to 20 may come on to mend the per centum of malignant hydrops until sepsis, daze, kidney failure, and decease. Not familiar with the intervention of the dead. [ 62 ] A A Tularemia Classic offers six two clinical syndromes: Ulceroglandular: the most common signifier of tularaemia. Glandular type, which represents 75-85 % instances of self-generated coevals. Erythema, bring arounding, non-healing ulcer, continues to plug out 1-3 hebdomads. May be volatile and local lymph nodes, drain spontaneously. Suppurative lymph nodes may happen after 3 hebdomads of intervention. [ 34 ] the differential diagnosing of glandular tularaemia ulcer is sporotrichosis figure of white blood cells, contain a cat-scratch disease, lymphatic vass, lymphogranuloma granulomatous redness of the pestilence, and Pasteurella infections. [ 36 ] Gland: the 2nd most common. Of the neck 10 old ages, arthropod vectors of tularaemia vaccinum lymph secretory organs in the tegument of the thigh and inguen of grownups and kids, the most common. [ 34 ] Oculoglandular: Pilgrims tegument and conjunctiva, tularaemia vaccinum in development oculoglandular Bekutoruearozoru or arthropod [ 34 leads to. Pharynx, tummy, little bowel: is eating meat is cooked in or following direct vaccination from manus to oral cavity. [ 34 ] in patients with redness of the pharynx that occurs in 25 per centum of the backups to tularemia. Petechiae and erythema may be the pharynx, contusions, ulcers may be present, and / or secernment. [ 114 ] Typhoid: 10-50 merely need to take a breath the cause of tularaemia enteric fever object. Meanwhile, the United States is without doing skin lesions and lymph secretory organs rare signifier of pestilence. One must surmise tularaemia in clip to do a diagnosing and effectual intervention for one. Disease mortality ensuing from 30 to 60 per centum. [ 34 ] Respiratory: pneumonic tularaemia, these people are enduring with typhoid febrility, tularaemia, a disease of people of 50-80 per cent of 10-30 % glandular ulcer development. [ 34,115 ] and pleuritic thorax hurting patients with non-current external respiration, shortness of breath and productive cough. Chest Ten to uncover the being of a existent invasion of the line variables. To 30 per centum of patients die. [ 34 ] and the differential diagnosing of Q febrility, mycoplasma include parrot, coccidiomycosis and histoplasmosis. [ 36 ] Live attenuated vaccinum for persons at hazard ( laboratory workers and field ) is available and the fungus F. against aerosol challenge to protect the person. [ 114 ] is the drug of pick for grownups streptomycin. [ 114 ] , Achromycin, Gentamaishinsefutoriakison, Fortaz and Claforan, and Chloromycetin are besides effectual How to cite Biological Warfare And Health Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

Consumer Law Sales of Goods Act free essay sample

Sale of Goods Act applies to all contracts for the sale of goods whether it be a commercial contract between two companies or two individuals for the supply of goods or the sale of everyday items. A contract of sale of goods is defined as a contract whereby the seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in the goods to the buyer for a money consideration called the price. In every contract for the sale of goods there must be the ordinary elements of a contract plus: goods, money consideration, transfer of property (s1) Sale and agreement to sell: The Term â€Å"Contract for the sale of goods† includes (See section 1(3)).  a) A sale of goods (executed) â€Å"I will sell you this book† b) An agreement to sell goods (executor) â€Å"I will sell you the book when the order arrives†. 1. A sale occurs when the ownership of the goods is transferred at the time of a contract. The rights of the parties: a) The seller can sue the buyer for the price of the goods. b) The buyer can sue the seller if he defaults or for conversion (for definition see page 236, footnote 7) if he wrongfully disposes of the goods. c) The risk of any loss to the goods after sale is with the buyer as ownership has passed. 2. An agreement to sell arises where the ownership of the goods is to be transferred at a future time or subject to some conditions. The rights of the parties: a) The seller has the right to sue the buyer for damages if he defaults. b) The buyer, where the seller defaults, can only sue for damages. c) The risk or any loss to the goods is with the seller as ownership has not passed. Note: See sl(4) to determine when an agreement to sell becomes a sale contract. Classification of goods: Goods which form the subject matter of a contract of sale may be: (s5 60) a) Existing goods eg a particular car.  b) Future goods eg work in progress. c) Specific goods. Before a sale can take place the goods must be identified and agreed upon. d) Unascertained goods. If the goods are unidentified, ie not earmarked, then there is an agreement to sell only and as such does not form a sale until the goods are delivered or as agreed. Money consideration, the price (s8). The prices can be fixed at the time of sale or by a method agreed upon but in the absence of an agreement there is an implied condition to pay a reasonable price. Note: For the Act to apply there must be some money consideration, therefore barter is not appropriate.  1. In an unconditional contract for specified, goods in a deliverable state, property passes at sale (s18 Rule1) 2. If the seller is still required to do something to the goods, property passes when that thing is done (Refer to Seath v Moore, page 210, s18 Rule 2 3) 3. If the sale is â€Å"on appro† or â€Å"on sale or return†, property passes to the buyer (s18 Rule 4). 4. Sale of unascertained goods, property passes once the goods are ascertained and the goods are appropriated to the contract with the approval of the buyer (s16, 18 Rule 5(1)). 5. Delivery of goods to a carrier is appropriation of goods to a contract (s18 Rule 5(2)) 6. Seller can by arrangement reserve the right of disposal (s19) 7. If specific goods are destroyed before making the contract, it is void through mistake (s 67). 8. If unascertained goods are destroyed before making the contract the contract is not void. The seller would be required to find other goods to tender in performance of the contract. 9. Risk, unless otherwise agreed, remains with the seller until the property is transferred to the buyer s20. Title of Transfer: Refer to sections 21-26. The general rule is that no person can receive a better title to goods than that of the transferor. Exception to that rule are: a) –Estoppel: Where the owner of goods is by his conduct precluded from denying the seller’s authority to sell, the buyer obtains a valid title. (s21) b) Sale by a Mercantile Agent or by a person under Special Power: When goods are sold by a mercantile agent to a person who takes them bona fide, such a person obtains a valid title to the goods. c) Sale under a Voidable Title: (see s23). When the option has not been exercised the buyer acquires a good title if purchased in good faith and without notice of any defects or title. d) Sale by Seller or Buyer in possession after sale: (See s25) Where the seller continues in possession of the goods a further sale of the goods to a person receiving them in good faith and without notice of the previous sale has the same effect as if the transaction was authorised by the original purchaser. e) Sale in Market Overt: (See s22): Where goods are purchased in a open public market, the buyer obtains a good title provided he/she has acquired them in good faith.  f) When stolen goods are sold the true owner can recover them if the thief has been prosecuted to conviction (s24). However if the goods are obtained by fraud the goods are not revested by reason only of conviction. Conditions and Warranties: Refer to Part 1 sections 10-15 of the Sale of Goods Act Condition: A term going to the root of the contract, of vital importance. War ranty: A term of lesser importance, an auxiliary term, not the contract itself, not an opinion, not sales talk. Transfer of property. If the contract when carried out would result in the sale of a chattel eg a chair the contract is one for the sale of goods. The problem arises when the contracts main substance is the supply of skills and or experience with materials being ancillary, eg an artist commissioned to paint a portrait. Enforceable Contract: (s4) Sale of goods $20 and over is unenforceable unless: a) The buyer has received and accepted all or part of the goods, or b) The buyer has given something in earnest to bind the contract, or c) The buyer has given something in part payment, or d) Evidence in writing exists to prove the contract existed. Note: Also applies to a single contract which embraces a number of articles if the total value is or exceeds $20. Acceptance: the word has two distinct meanings under Sale of Goods Act: 1. Relating to the condition of enforceability of the contract (refer to s4(3)). Note: 1. The act of acceptance need not be acceptance of the goods; it is sufficient if the act is consistent with recognition of an existing contract, eg where a buyer makes an effort to re-sell goods before their actual receipt. 2. In relation to actually receiving the goods the buyer has receipt when the seller has released the goods. 2. Relating to transfer of ownership of the goods or performance of the contract. Refer to s35 in respect to when performance of a contract is deemed to have taken place. Earnest: A buyer may give some tangible thing as an earnest token of good faith and as guarantee that he/she will fulfil his/her contract. An â€Å"earnest† must be distinguished from a part payment. If he/she defaults the earnest will be fortified, however, if there has been a part payment, then the part payment may be recovered. Note or memorandum: Must show: a) The names of the parties b) The quantity and description of the goods sold. c) The price and terms as to mode and time of payment, if they have been agreed upon. d) The signature of the party to be charged or that of his/her agent. Note: These particulars can appear in one document or in a series of documents. The memorandum may be made at any time before an action on the contract is commenced. It need not be in formal or legal language and in fact any writing embodying the terms and signed is sufficient. Transfer of Property: Refer to Part 2 sections 16-20 of the Sale of Goods Act. It is important to distinguish between Property in goods and Possession of goods. (a) Property refers to ownership or title to the goods, (b) possession refers to custody or control of goods. It is important to be able to ascertain the exact time when property in goods passes from the seller to the buyer as risk of loss lies with the owner rather than the possessor of the goods. The following are the rules for ascertaining the time at which the property in goods is to pass to buyer: The Sale of Goods Act implies certain conditions (s 10-15) and these conditions are applicable to all contracts of sale, unless the circumstance of the contract are such as to show a different intention. a) Under the act, there is an implied condition that the seller has the right to sell the goods, that is he/she has title to pass on (s12(i)). b) Implied condition that the goods shall correspond with the description. This applies to goods sold by advertisement or pamphlet and can even apply where there was an opportunity for the buyer to inspect the goods, eg sale by sample and description (s13). c) There is an implied condition the goods sold will be merchantable quality if they are sold by description. Provided that if the buyer has examined the goods and the examination did not reveal any defects (s14(ii)). d) Fitness for the stated purpose is an implied condition (s14(i)) e) There is an implied condition that the bulk shall correspond with the sample and the buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing them in a sale by sample (s15(2)). f) Generally stipulation as to time of delivery is a condition but stipulation as to time of payment are warranties (s10). g) There are implied warranties that the goods are free from encumbrance and that the buyer shall have â€Å"quiet possession† (an indemnity against the consequences of a defective title) (s12 (ii) (iii)). h) If the goods are inherently dangerous, there is a responsibility in tort, for the supplier to inform the buyer of any precautions to be taken, otherwise he/she may be negligent. Note: 1. These terms and conditions implied by the act can be varied by agreement between the parties (s54): 2. Caveat Emptor: Let the buyers beware. This maxim is applicable in common law when the buyer exercises his/her own judgement in the selection of goods and does not rely on the judgement of the seller. The position of the consumer has been strengthened from this point by various acts. Trade Practices Act v Sale of Goods Act: The Commonwealth Trade Practices Act 1974 s69-72 implies that, in contracts for the supply of goods by corporations and other traders that engage in interstate or overseas trade and commerce, conditions as to title, correspondence with description, merchantable quality and fitness for purpose cannot be excluded or restricted by agreement between the parties, where the goods are of the kind ordinarily acquired for personal, domestic and household use or consumption. Title: The supplier should transfer only such title as the supplier or a third person may have. Correspondence with Description: It is sufficient that the goods are supplied â€Å"in the course of business†. That is not by a person â€Å"who deals in goods of that description† only as stipulated in the SGA s14 (i). Merchantable quality: There is no requirement however the T. P. A does state â€Å"Goods of any kind are of a merchantable quality†¦if they are as fit for the purpose or purposes for which goods of that kind are commonly bought†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Fitness of Purpose: Where the consumer makes known to the corporation supplying the goods any particular purpose for which the goods are being acquired, the implied condition is set, whether or not it is a propose for which goods are commonly supplied. The Commonwealth Trade Practices Act 1974 s75A provides that a consumer is entitled to rescind a contract for the breach of a condition either by: 1. Serving on the supplier a notice in writing giving the particulars of the breach, or 2. By the consumer returning the goods to the supplier and giving the supplier the particulars of the breach (As compared with s11 of the Sale of Goods Act) Note: The Fair Trading Act 1987 is a carbon copy of the Trade Practices Act 1974. However, the F. T. A applies to all suppliers of goods and services to consumers whether the supplier is incorporated or not. A condition is to be treated as a warranty See section 11: 1. If a party chooses to treat a breach of a condition as not to set the contract aside. 2. If the sale is not severable and the buyer accepts the goods or part of the goods. 3. If the sale is for specific goods the property in which has passed to the buyer. Performance of the Contract: In the absence of agreement: 1. The seller must deliver the goods, and the buyer must accept and pay the goods. (s27). 2. Payment and delivery are concurrent conditions (s28) that is the seller must give possession of the goods on payment of the price by the buyer. 3. Goods must be paid for in legal tender. 4. There is no right to possession until the price is paid. 5. Goods sold on credit and deliverable immediately, subject to stoppage in transit (see below). Rules as to delivery: (See sections 29-37). 1. The place of delivery is the seller’s place of business or, if none, his residence. (s29(1)). 2. Delivery to an apparently authorised agent is delivery to the buyer. (See Galibraith Grant V Block Pg 268). Note: s29(2) possession of a third person 3. Goods must be sent within a reasonable time and at a reasonable hour (s29(2) (4)). 4. Demand by the buyer must be made at a reasonable hour (s29(4)). 5. The expenses of putting goods into a deliverable state must be borne by the seller (s29(5)). 6. Delivery of the wrong quantity of goods (s30) or the wrong goods (Plywood v Nasic Oak Pg 269), leaves the buyer to reject them all, accept the contracted part or accept them all and pay at the contracted rate. 7. Buyer is not always bound to accept delivery by instalments (s31). 8. Minor delivery variations would not entitle buyer to repudiate (Maple Flock v Universal Furniture). 9. Delivery to the carrier is delivery to the buyer, provided the seller makes reasonable arrangements for transport. (s32(1) (2)). 10. Seller must notify the buyer of shipping so that the buyer can insure. (s32(3), Wimble Sons Co v Rosenberg Sons Pg270). 11. The buyer takes risk of deterioration where the goods are delivered to a distant place (s33). 12. A buyer who had not previously examined the goods is entitled to examine them before he/she is deemed to have accepted them (s34). 13. The goods are usually deemed to be accepted by the buyer when they have been delivered (s35). 14. Buyer is not bound to return rejected goods (s36). 15. If the buyer does not take delivery within a reasonable time he/she is liable for loss, care and custody of the goods (s37). Constructive or symbolic Delivery: In some cases delivery may not amount to actual transfer of goods but it may be construed from the circumstances, eg. the handing over of a key. Free on Board – F. O. B. : Means seller must put goods on board the ship and pay all expenses of doing so, he/she must also notify the buyer so that the buyer can insure. Cost, Insurance Freight – C. I. F.: Means the seller must put the goods on board the ship and pay all costs of doing so and must also pay shipping and insurance costs and then release a bill of lading to the buyer. Note: Risk of loss passes in both instances when the goods are placed on board ship and any loss falls to the buyer or the insurer. Rights of an Unpaid Seller: (See s38-49) An unpaid seller is a person to whom the whole price if the goods has not been paid (s38). a) Against the goods: (s39(1)) 1. A Lien – the right to retain possession until goods are paid for. Ownership is with the buyer but possession is with the seller. Can only have a lien if you rightfully hold the goods (s40-42). 2. Stoppage in Transitu – an unpaid seller can stop goods which are in transit if the buyer becomes insolvent (s43 – 45). 3. Re-sale – where: (s47) a) Goods are of a perishable nature (See s6) b) Seller exercises his/her right of lien or stoppage in transit and gives notice of his/her intention to re-sell, or c) Seller has expressly reserved a right of re-sale in the case of the buyer defaulting. 4. Withhold Delivery – if neither ownership nor possession has passed to the buyer, the seller can retain the goods until paid for (s39(2)). Note: If the buyer lawfully sells title to the goods to a person who takes them in good faith and for valuable consideration then the above rights are lost (s46). b) Against the Buyer: 1. Seller can sue the buyer for the price of the goods when the property in the goods has passed to the buyer (s48): 2. Seller can claim damages for non-acceptance where the buyer refuses to pay for or accept the goods (s49). Note: damages may be negligible, generally assessed as the difference between the contract price and the market price (s49(3)). Rights of the Buyer: (See s50-53) 1. Non-Delivery – the contract may contain a stipulation as to time of delivery and the buyer is entitled to have these carried out. IF the seller defaults the buyer may sue for damages. Buyer must mitigate the loss (s50). 2. Specific Performance – if the item (s) of unique nature and damages would be inadequate, the buyer may sue for specific performance under Court decree (s51). 3. Breach of Warranty – the buyer may sue to reduce the price or claim damages (s52) 4. Repudiation – the buyer may repudiate the contract if a breach of a condition (Rowland v Divall Pg281). Note: Cannot repudiate if the buyer treats the breach as a warranty, if he/she has accepted the goods or, property has passed to him/her. Auctioneers and Auction Sales: Are covered by the Auction Sales Act 1973 (WA), however, see section 57, of S. G. A Auctioneers are required to hold a licence to operate and act as agents for the sellers, as such they are not one of the contracting parties. A bid is an offer and the fall of the hammer is acceptance. So vendor can withdraw form acceptance or completion any time up to the fall of the hammer. Duties of auctioneers: It is the duty of an auctioneer to: 1. Hold a licence and act in person 2. Sell for money only. 3. Accept the highest bona fide bid where auctioneer sells without reserve (e. e. minimum price) 4. Account for the proceeds if goods sold. 5. Not delivery goods until paid for. 6. Keep full records of sales Warranties by auctioneers: An auctioneer gives the following implied warranties: 1. His/her authority to sell 2. That he/she knows of no defect if the principal’s title. 3. To give possession against the price paid. 4. That such possession will not be disturbed by the principal or the auctioneer.